Key Words and Concepts

Chapter 13

components of a basal –

• emergent literacy: big books are used to introduce shared reading and how reading works, organized thematically, multiple text types are used to build interest and excitement.
• beginning reading: new basic sight words are introduced, feature explicit, systematic, and intensive phonics, with decodable text.
• strategy lessons: individual and group lessons and activities to teach sight vocabulary, phonics, structural analysis, and use of context. Vocabulary is typically directly related to the story being read. Students are exposed to new skills systematically and sequentially.
• comprehensive strand: comprehension strongly stressed with rereading, during reading, and post-reading strategies. Multicultural material and nonfiction is prevalent. The instructional program follows a set routine, using prompts consistently throughout the book. Emphasis is on critical reading through higher level questions and encouragement of prediction making.
• language arts: creating a literacy environment by integrating reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Several strategies are used from workshops to art and music centers. Various writing activities are used such as journals, posters, and emails.
• management: systematic instruction of reading or language arts programs for teachers, which helps teachers document individual student and class progress.
• assessment: various types of formal and informal assessments are used to inform teachers’ instructional decision and students’ understanding of their progress towards their own goals.
• differentiation: differentiating instruction in the classroom and then intervening for students who need further support. Resources from small group instruction to workstations and technology are provided. Many are offered in tiers in response o RTI.

lesson framework of a lesson in a basal –

• Motivate and build background information – prereading activities to build interest, set the purpose, and introduce new concepts and vocabulary.
• Oral and silent guided reading – after silent reading, students may be asked to read a section aloud. The focus here is on comprehension.
• Skills development and practice – direct instruction of reading skills arranged according to scope and sequence
• Follow-up and enrichment – includes writing activities, readers theater, mini-lessons, podcasts, and literature circles

modifying basal lessons – personalized reading instruction for teachers and students, based on the need to adapt in order to meet the special needs of students. Lessons may be rearranged or parts may be omitted or expanded. For difficult parts, prereading strategies are used.

evaluating reading materials for instruction –

1. What is the overall philosophy of the program? How is reading discussed in the teacher’s guide?
2. What kind of learning environment does the program recommend? Is it child centered, teacher centered, literature-centered, skills based, or scientific?
3. Describe the emergent literacy program in detail. How does it provide for communication between school and home?
4. Describe the instructional program in detail. How are lessons structured to teach phonemic awareness, word identification, vocabulary, reading fluency, comprehension, writing?
5. Describe the literature of the program. Are the selections in unabridged form, are different genres included, is there a strong presence of non-fiction, and how culturally diverse is the literature?
6. How well does the program integrate across the curriculum? In what ways in assessment connected to daily instruction? What opportunities are there for connections between the various language arts?

Chapter 14

readability – the relative accessibility or difficulty of a text. Sentence length and word difficulty are among the elements used in formulas that assign grade-level readability scores for text material.

textmaster roles – roles similar to those used in literature circles, but are used here for reading textbook material.

idea sketches – graphic organizer that students complete in small groups as they read textbook material

trade books – literature and informational books widely available in bookstores; used by teachers to supplement or replace sole dependence on textbooks in reading or content area instruction

literature across the curriculum – weaving an array of literature into meaningful and relevant instructional activities within the content are study

literature web – any graphic device that illustrates the relationships among the major components in a unit of study

narrative informational texts – books in which the author typically tells a story that conveys factual information

expository informational books – books that contain information that typically follows specific text structures such as description, sequence, cause and effect, comparison, and contrast, and problem solving

mixed-text informational books – sometimes referred to as combined-text trade books; stories are narrated and factual information surrounds the story

previewing – establishing purposes and priorities before reading to help students become aware of the goals of a reading assignment

skimming – intense previewing of the reading assignment to see what it will be about

organizer – a frame of reference established to prepare children conceptually for ideas to be encountered in reading.

graphic organizer – any diagram of key concepts or main ideas that shows their relationship to each other

anticipation guide – a series of written or oral statements for individual students to respond to before reading text assignments

point-of-view guides – an instructional activity for supporting comprehension in which readers approach a text selection from various perspectives or points of view

idea circles – a literature circle in which readers engage in discussions of concepts they have been exploring in trade books and other types of texts

curriculum-based reader’s theater – a strategy in which students work in small groups to create sections of content text in the form of an entertaining play

i-charts – a chart that helps students research, organize, and integrate information from multiple text sources

internet inquiry – an instructional strategy designed to help students engage in research on the internet based on questions they raise or their interests in various topics of study

WebQuest – an electronic model in which internet inquiry is organized to support student learning

Classroom Connection

• Ms. Carpenter uses caution tape across her classroom library to build anticipation while the class learns the rules and expectations. I love this idea.
• Use short shelves to make “walls” of the library
• Use lamps and comfortable seating
• Provide “reading buddies” stuffed animals for younger grades

Book Images

Work Cited

Vacca, J. A., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C. A. (2012). Reading and Learning to Read(Eighth ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Key Words and Concepts

Chapter 11

relationships between reading and writing and what the research states –

• Reading and writing processes are correlated: good readers are good writers and so on.
• Students who write well tend to read more that those who are less capable writers.
• Wide reading may be as effective in improving writing as actual practice in writing.
• Good readers and writers are likely to engage in reading and writing independently because they have healthy concepts of themselves as readers and writers.
• Research also suggests that the two processes may be different as well. Some readers may be poor writers.
• Instruction should include both reading and writing together.

how to create an informal writing environment, and suggestions to encourage classroom writing –

• Encourage students to write about what they know, their experiences, and their interests.
• Provide opportunities to research.
• Read poetry and literature to students.
• Share writing by reading, displaying, and publishing it.
• Encourage students one-on-one as they are writing.
• Write and share your own stories and poems.
• Tie in writing with the entire curriculum.
• Start a writing center in the classroom.
• Create a relaxed atmosphere.

what can students write about and writing activities – See below and Figure 11.2

dialogue journal – a journal written as a conversation between child and teacher that emphasizes meaning while providing natural, functional experiences in both writing and reading

buddy journal – written conversations between children in a journal format; promotes student interaction, cooperation, and collaboration

key pals – the electronic equivalent of pen pals

double entry journals – a two-column journal format that gives students an opportunity to identify passages from texts and explore in writing why those passages are interesting or meaningful

reading journals – a journal used in conjunction with literacy texts. After a period of sustained reading, teachers use prompts to guide students’ written responses to the text.

response journals – a journal entry without a teacher prompt

writing notebooks – places where students can gather observations, thoughts, reactions, ideas, unusual words, pictures, and interesting facts for future writings

multigenre project – a paper that is a collection of genres that that reflect multiple responses to a book, theme, or topic. Examples of genres are postcards, letters, posters, and comic strips

plot scaffolds – an open-ended script in which students use their imaginations to create characters, a setting, a problem, and a solution

traditional writing process –

1. Brainstorm what they want to write about
2. Draft their thoughts
3. Revise their thoughts after input from the teacher or peers
4. Edit their writing for errors and such
5. Publish their writing

writing process according to authors –

in addition to the traditional process:

• Provide students with exemplary examples of how authors write
• Encourage students to write in multiple genres
• Assist students as they write

brainstorming – Prereading activity that identifies a broad concept reflecting the main topic to be studied in an assigned reading and organizes students in small groups to generate a list of words related to the topic

writing workshop – classroom writing time during which students are given the structure and direction they need to understand, develop, or use specific writing strategies in planning revising drafts

mini lessons – a brief, direct instructional exchange between teacher and students to address specific, observed learning and needs of students

group share sessions – discussion period intended to help students reflect on the day’s work. As part of a writing workshop plan, the session focuses on specific writing concerns

guided writing – an instrumental framework in which teachers guide students as they write

how to use technology to teach writing – supporting students’ writing of electronic texts is one of the important reading-writing-technology connections that can be made in the classroom. It is important to make technology accessible and up-to-date in the classroom as much as possible, and to encourage its use, from word-processing, publishing,and multi-media authoring, as well as for research and for other subjects

Chapter 12

literature-based reading program – a major approach to reading that encourages students to select their own trade books, with the sessions followed by teacher-student conferences at which students may ask to read aloud from their selections; used by teachers who want to provide for individual student differences in reading abilities while focusing on meaning, interests, and enjoyment

community of readers – the conceptualization of children, in alliance with their friends and teacher, working together in classrooms where reading imitates adult reading; an effect created by literature-based reading programs

how to hook students on books – See Figure 12.1

selecting a classroom collection of books – can come from the teachers personal collection, the school library, the public library, and paperback book clubs. change out the borrowed selection frequently. encourage the use of e-books as well

how to choose classroom literature –

• read and enjoy the children’s books yourself
• read children’s books with a sense of involvement
• read a variety of book types
• read books for a wide variety of ability levels
• share how your students respond to particular books with other teachers of other university students
• start by reading several books of good quality, such as Newbery Medal and Caldecott Medal award winners

determining good literature –

• the collection needs to contain modern, realistic literature as well as more traditional literature
• the collection needs to contain books that realistically present different ethnic and minority groups and nontraditional families as well as main stream Americans
• the collection needs to contain books with different types of themes and books of varying difficulty
• the collection needs to include nonfiction

multicultural literature – it is of the upmost importance that children feel represented in the classroom, in literature, and are exposed to a wide range of other groups and cultures. See image below “Criteria for Selecting Multicultural Literature”

designing a classroom library – a wide range of books on various reading levels is essential. Include books with science, math, art, social studies and music curricula, and on topics that will be studied in these subject areas. The library area should be highly visible, with clear boundaries. It should be quiet, have comfortable seating, and have at least 5-6 books per child

listening to literature – students gain a positive disposition towards books through hearing stories and poems.

reading aloud – read to students regularly, texts that they will enjoy and might not read on their own. Incorporate reading aloud across all aspects of the curriculum. In addition:

• prepare by reading the text to yourself
• set the mood by using a sort of signal or symbol that it is story time, such as a reading lamp, or playing music
• introduce the story in a fun and interesting way “a hook”
• incorporate activities after the read-aloud, including allowing the students to sometimes reflect privately about what they heard
• allow others to present literature such as other teachers and school staff, parents, and other people from the community

helping students choose just right books – be well versed in children’s literature so that you can create excitement and steer children towards books suited to their interests and abilities. In addition, help them to choose an easy read book to build confidence and fluency, a book they are working on with some challenge spots, and a challenge book to gain a sense of growth as they read and reread it.

core books – collection of books that forms the nucleus of a school reading program at each grade level; usually selected by a curriculum committee

literature circles – discussion or study group based on a collaborative strategy involving self-selection of books for reading; each group consists of students who independently select the same book

reading workshop – method, introduced by Nancie Atwell, for integrating the language arts around literature through an organizational framework that allows readers to demonstrate reading strategies by responding to books and sharing meaning with their peers

roles in literature circles – See Figure 12.5

responses to literature – See Figure 12.1

read-response theory – the belief that responsibility for constructing textual meaning resides primarily with the reader and depends to a great extent on the readers prior knowledge and experience

Classroom Connection

• I LOVE THIS! Setting the mood for story time: pg 434 says that a teacher, Norton, brings out a small music box at story time and tells students about the magical stories contained in it. As she opens the box the children try to catch the magic in their hands, and carefully hold it while they listen to the stories. Then they each carefully return the magic to the box when story time is over.
• ***Very Important*** Tips for selecting multicultural literature for the classroom: https://www.k12reader.com/ten-tips-for-selecting-multicultural-books-for-reading-instruction/
• A Guide to Selecting Multicultural Literature: http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/selection_guide/
• ***Great Tips*** Reading Rockets, Creating a Classroom Library: https://www.readingrockets.org/article/creating-classroom-library

Book Images

Work Cited

Vacca, J. A., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C. A. (2012). Reading and Learning to Read(Eighth ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Key Words and Concepts

Chapter 9

aptitude hypothesis – the belief that vocabulary and comprehension reflect general intellectual ability

knowledge hypothesis – the suggestion that vocabulary and comprehension reflect general knowledge rather than intellectual ability

instrumental hypothesis – belief in a casual chain between vocabulary knowledge and comprehension, that is, if comprehension depends in part on the knowledge of word meanings, vocabulary instruction should influence comprehension

vocabulary – the words we use, recognize, and respond to in meaningful acts of communication. vocabulary represents the breadth (size and scope) and depth (level of understanding of all the words we know

components of vocabulary – Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing developed in breadth and depth in that order

Principles to Guide Vocabulary Instruction –

• Principle 1: Select words that children will encounter while reading literature and content material
• Principle 2: Teach words in relation to other words
• Principle 3: Teach students to relate words to their background knowledge
• Principle 4: Teach words in pre-reading activities to activate knowledge and use them in post-reading discussion, response, and retelling
• Principle 5: Teach words systematically and in depth
• Principle 6: Awaken interest in and enthusiasm for words

Strategies for Vocabulary and Concept Development – See also Image “Box 9.3”

• relate experiences to vocabulary learning
• use context for vocabulary growth
• develop word meanings
• classify and categorize words
• develop word meanings through stories and writing
• develop independence in vocabulary learning

synonyms – a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase in the same language. Example: shut and close

antonyms – a word opposite in meaning to another. Example: bad and good

think sheets – lists of questions used to elicit responses about texts for discussion purposes

categorization – critical manipulation of words in relation to other words through the labeling of ideas, events, or objects

multiple-meaning words – words for which readers must rely on context in order to determine meaning

word sorts – vocabulary development through categorization activities with groups of words

concept circles – a vocabulary activity in which students identify conceptual relationships among words and phrases that are partitioned within a circle

semantic mapping – a strategy that shows readers and writers how to organize important information

analogy – a comparison of two similar relationships

paired-word sentence generation – teaching strategy that asks students to take two related words and create one sentence that correctly demonstrates an understanding of the words and their relationship to one another

predictogram – a strategy that develops students’ meaning vocabulary through the use of story elements

self-selection strategy – a strategy that helps students monitor their own vocabulary growth by selecting unknown vocabulary words

word knowledge rating – a strategy that helps students develop an awareness of how well they know vocabulary words by rating themselves on their knowledge of words based on a continuum

Chapter 10

scaffolding instruction – instruction in which the teachers model strategies step by step and provide guided practice, followed by independent practice and application

literal questions – questions that are based on explicitly stated information in the text

inferential questions – questions in which the readers uses background knowledge and information from the text

evaluative questions – questions that focus on making judgement about what is read

active comprehension – using prior knowledge, schemata, and metacognition to construct textual meaning; fostered by using questioning during reading

ReQuest – reciprocal questioning that encourages students to ask their own questions about material they have read

QAR’s – Question-Answer Relationships. a comprehension strategy that enhances students ability to answer comprehension questions by teaching them how to find the information they need to respond

QtA – Questioning the Author. a comprehension-centered instructional strategy designed to show readers how to question author’s intent while reading

reciprocal teaching – an instructional strategy that builds readers’ awareness of and expertise in the use of various comprehension skills and strategies

think-alouds – a comprehension strategy in which students talk about their thoughts as they read aloud

story map – an analysis of a story’s organizational elements; used to to strengthen instructional decisions

general and specific comprehension questions –

schema – a general idea about something

activities to build schema for stories –

• Read, tell, and perform stories in class
• Show relationships between story parts (See Figure 10.8)
• Reinforce story knowledge through instructional strategies such as marcocloze stories, scrambled stories, story frames, and circular story maps. See below.

macrocloze stories – stories given to students with passages deleted from the text; students read the stories and discuss the missing text either orally or in writing

scrambled stories – stories separated into parts and jumbled; students read the stories and put them back in order

story frames – skeletal paragraphs represented by a sequence of spaces tied together with transition words and connectors signaling lines of thought; frames can emphasize plot summary, setting, character analysis, character comprehension, and problem

circular story map – a visual representation using pictures to depict the sequence of events leading to the problem in a story

DR-TA – Directed Reading-Thinking Activity – an activity that builds critical awareness of the reader’s role and responsibility in interacting with the text through the process of predicting, verifying, judging, and extending thinking about text material

KWL – What do you Know? What do you Want to find out? What did you Learn?) – three step teaching model designed to to guide and motivate children as the read to acquire information from expository texts

discussion webs – a strategy used in cooperative learning that requires students to explore both sides of issues during post-reading discussions before drawing conclusions

story impressions – prereading strategy that helps students anticipate what stories could be about, using content fragments to make predictions

text connections: text to self, text to text, text to world – See also Figure 10.17

• text to self: asks students to share what a piece of fiction or nonfiction text reminds them of personally
• text to text: asks students to recall another text that reminds them of the one they are reading
• text to world: asks students to make connections beyond the story

Classroom Connection

• More info on DR-TA https://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/drta
• Printable KWL Chart http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/chart-a-30226.html
• Scramble stories https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Browse/Search:scrambled%20stories
• With tutoring each week the current book is discussed in relation to the previous book(s) to build comprehension, which really seems to be making an impact on overall comprehension. We also discuss our personal connections to the books.

Book Images

Word Cited

Vacca, J. A., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C. A. (2012). Reading and Learning to Read(Eighth ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Key Words and Concepts

Chapter 7

word attack – mediated identification strategies used to decode words

word analysis and decoding – mediated identification strategies where words are broken into parts in order to recognize/read them

word recognition – a process that involves immediate identification of words

phonics – mediated identification strategy where the student correlated sounds with letters or groups of letters in an alphabetic writing system

pre-alphabetic phase – students are able to recognize some words at sight due to distinctive visual and/or contextual clues around the word

partial alphabetic phase – students develop some knowledge of letters and detect letter-sound relationships

full alphabetic phase – students (readers) identify words by matching all of the letters and sounds

consolidated alphabetic phase – students are able to remember matches between multi-letter units and symbolic units such as onsets and rimes

onsets – the initial consonants and consonant patterns that come at the beginning of syllables

rimes – the vowel and consonants the follow them at the end of syllables

analytic phonics – a whole-to-part approach to word study in which the student is first taught a number of sight words and then relevant phonic generalizations, which are then applied to other words. These are the typical steps:

• Observe a list of known words with a common letter-sound relationships.
• Begin questioning about how the words look and sound the same and how they are different.
• Elicit the common letter-sound relationship and discuss.
• Have the learners phrase a generalization about the letter-sound relationship.

synthetic phonics – part-to-whole phonics approach to reading instruction in which the student learns the sound represented by letters and letter combinations, blends these sounds together to pronounce new words, and then identifies which phonics generalization applies. These are the typical steps:

• Teach the letter names.
• Teach the sound or sounds each letter represents.
• Drill on letter-sound relationships, discuss the rules, and form generalizations about relationships that usually apply to words.
• Teach the blending of separate sounds to make a word.
• Provide opportunity to apply blending to unknown words.

linguistic instruction – a beginning reading approach based on highly regular sound-symbol patters. Emphasizes learning to decode words through regular letter patterns such as dish, swish, fish.

decodable text – stories that use repeated word parts, text that is written with a large number of words that have phonetic similarities, and there is typically a match between the text and the phonics elements that the teacher has taught.

digraphs – a combination of two letters representing one sound

consonant blends – two or three consonants grouped together, but each consonant retains its original sound

diphthongs – a sound formed by the combination of two vowels in a single syllable, in which the sound begins as one vowel and moves toward another (as in coin, loud, and side).

syllables – a vowel or cluster of letters containing a vowel and pronounced as a unit

analogy-based instruction – students are taught to use their knowledge of letters representing onsets and rimes they already know how to pronounce, rather than their knowledge of letter-phoneme correspondences to pronounce unfamiliar words

developmental stages of word learning and spelling – See Table 7.1 below

embedded phonics instruction – often called holistic, meaning-centered instruction, embedded phonics teaches phonics within the context of the stories that make sense to the children.

phonograms – (also called rimes) are letter patterns that help form word families or rhyming words

making words – using flip books, do the following steps:

• Decide on the rime that you wish students to practice, and develop a rime card for each student. (example: all)
• Develop a set of consonant letter cards for each student that can be used to make words with the rime that has been targeted for practice. (example: b,c,f,h,m,t,w)
• Direct students to use the letter cards to make the first word. (example: ball)
• Invite students to now make a new word. (example: call)
• Repeat the activity until all of the words have been made.

word walls – a collection of words which are displayed in large visible letters on a wall, bulletin board, or other display surface in a classroom, and is designed to be an interactive tool for students and contains an array of words that can be used during writing and reading.

high-frequency words – words that occur frequently in texts

cloze sentences – fill-in-the-blank sentences for students to complete

cross-checking – involves reading a sentence or two to “cross-check” – confirm, modify, or reject – probable pronunciations of unknown words encountered during reading. If the sentence makes sense, the meaning confirms the reader’s cross-checking, if not, the reader tried again.

self-monitoring – being aware of miscues, the pronunciation of unknown words, and comprehension process during reading to develop the ability to correct oneself.

structural analysis – a word recognition skill that involves identifying words in meaningful units such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Also includes being able to identify inflected endings, compound words, and contractions.

morpheme – the smallest meaningful unit of a word (example: un means not)

inflected endings – suffixes that change the tense or degree of a word

Chapter 8

fluency – the ability to read easily and well

effective fluency instruction – Has Three Parts

1. Instruction should incorporate the teaching of basic skills such as phonemic awareness and phonics, and should model what fluency looks like.
2. Practice includes the use of decodable text and other independent-level texts to strengthen the sounds and spelling that are taught in the classroom.
3. Assessment should be done regularly and include fluency, comprehension, and WPM.

mediated word identification – needing to use strategies such as phonics and structural analysis to read words that they don’t have a strong schema for

automaticity – the automatic, almost subconscious recognition and understanding of written text

prosody – the expressiveness with which a student reads, i.e. the intonation, rhythm, and emphasis given to words and sentences when reading out loud

predictable text – literature that is distinguished by familiar or predictable characteristics of setting, story line, language patterns, or rhyme and consequently can promote fluency

types of predictable texts –

• Chain or Circular Story: plot is interlinked so that the ending leads back to the beginning. Example: If You Give a Mouse a Cookie
• Cumulative Story: each time a new event occurs, all of the previous events in the story are repeated. Example: Gingerbread Man
• Pattern Story: scenes are repeated throughout the story with some variation. Example: Three Billy Goats Gruff
• Question and Answer: the same or similar questions are repeated throughout the story. Example: Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?
• Repetition of Phrase: word order in a phrase or sentence is repeated. Example: Goodnight Moon
• Rhyme: Rhyming words, refrains, or patterns are used throughout the story. Example: Is Your Mama a Llama?
• Songbook: familiar songs with predictable elements such as repeated phrase. Example: Over in the Meadow

strategies to assist with fluency:

choral reading – oral reading, often of poetry, that makes use of various voice combinations and contrasts to create meaning or highlight the tonal qualities of a passage

echo reading – a method of modeling oral reading in which the teacher reads a line a story and then the students echo by reading the same line back, imitating the teacher’s intonation and phrasing. This is great for scaffolding. Select a challenging text.

fluency-orientated reading instruction (FORI) – incorporates the research-based practices of repeated, assisted reading with independent silent reading within a three-part classroom program: a reading lesson that includes teacher-led, repeated oral reading and partner reading, a free-reading period at school, and home reading.

readers’ theater – the oral presentation of a drama, prose, or poetry by two or more readers

repeated readings – reading short passages of texts more than once, with different levels of support, to develop rapid, fluent, oral reading.

paired readings – structured collaborative work involving pairs of children of the same or different reading ability to foster reading fluency.

fluency development lesson (FDL) – an instructional framework designed to develop oral reading fluency. It incorporates the use of various repeated reading techniques such as choral reading and paired reading routines.

automated reading – a reading approach in which students listen individually to audio-recorded stories while reading along with the written text.

oral recitation lesson (ORL) – lesson that makes use of direct instruction and student practice, including reading in chorus, as a means of incorporating fluency into daily reading instruction.

support reading strategy – a strategy designed to develop the ability to read fluently by combining several instructional elements.

cross-age reading – a routine for fluency development that pairs upper-grade readers with younger children

what parents can do at home to help their student become a fluent reader –

• read more
• read aloud
• reread familiar texts
• echo-read
• use predictable books

assessing fluency – should be done regularly and include fluency, comprehension, and WPM.

reading rate – See WPM or WCPM

WPM or WCPM – Words per Minute or Words Correct per Minute, is an assessment in which readers read aloud for 1 minute from materials used in their reading lessons. The teacher notes which words are read incorrectly. The assessment tracks changes in reading rates and accuracy over time and assesses the appropriateness of the text’s difficulty.

Classroom Application:

• Word Attack Games/Resources https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Browse/Search:word%20attack%20games
• Free Online Phonics Games https://www.education.com/games/phonological-awareness/
• Flip Books Resources https://www.education.com/games/phonological-awareness/
• Books with Predictable Text https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lists/17-18/books-with-predictable-text/

Text Book Images/Tables

Work Cited

Vacca, J. A., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C. A. (2012). Reading and Learning to Read(Eighth ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Key Words and Concepts

Chapter 5

emergent literacy – a concept that supports learning to read in a positive home environment, and assumes that children are born ready to become readers and writers, and are always becoming readers and writers

scaffolding instruction – instruction where teachers provide modeling, support, and practice, until the student is ready to try the new skill independently

storybook experience – reading/writing activities that promote literacy development, including read-alouds, readalongs, interactive reading, interactive writing, rereading favorite texts, and independent reading and writing

interactive writing – a shared writing activity in which students collaborate with the teacher to write a story together

linguistic awareness – having an understanding of the basic terms and labels needed to talk and understand the concept of reading

print awareness – understanding that print has meaning

concept of print – understanding of the mechanics of prints, such as reading from left to right, top to bottom, what the cover means, that illustrations correspond to the meaning of print, and so on

assessing concept of print – assessing concepts of print can be done while reading a book with a child/student and asking them questions, such as show me the cover, and where do we start reading? *See Table 5-2 for Marie Clay’s Concepts About Print Test

phonemes – the smallest units of sound

alphabetic principle – the understanding that letters mean sounds, and combinations of letters make different sounds and words

phonics –  teaching reading and writing by listening for, sounding out, and manipulating phonemes.

phonemic awareness – an understanding that speech is composed of a series of written sounds

phonological awareness – the ability to hear, recognize, and play with the sounds in our language

alliteration – the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words

rime – the part of a letter pattern in a word that includes the vowel and any consonants that follow

phonological awareness continuum – rhyming -> alliteration -> sentence segmenting -> blending and segmenting syllables -> phonemic awareness

orthographic system – based on the alphabetic principle, orthographic units, or graphemes make up sounds, which make words

phoneme isolation – recognizing individual sounds in words

phoneme identity – recognition of the same sounds in different words

phoneme categorization – task that requires children to recognize a word in a set that doesn’t fit or has an odd sound

blending – a more difficult task involving phonemic awareness which requires children to blend a series of orally presented sounds to form a word

segmenting beginning and ending sounds – isolating and identifying the sound at the beginning or end of a word

phoneme deletion, addition and substitution – take away or add something to make a new word

Elkonin boxes – to practice phonological awareness by segmenting words, a child listens to a word and moves a token into a box for each sound or phoneme heard

phonemic segmentation – the most difficult of the phonemic awareness tasks, in which children segment separate sounds in a word.

schema – a general idea about something, or the mental framework

Chapter 6

high-stakes testing – the practice of using a single test score for making education-related or personal decisions

authentic assessment – asking students to perform tasks that demonstrate sufficient knowledge and understanding of a subject

retelling – an assessment in which students identify and discuss integral parts of a story

formative assessment – an assessment that is used to gather information for teachers to adapt instruction to meet students’ needs

self-assessment – an assessment in which students identify their strength and weaknesses to help provide a plan for intervention

formal assessment – tests that systematically measure how well a student has mastered learning outcomes

standardized tests – a formal test of ability administered according to specific, unvarying directions, usually norm-referenced and machine scored

norms – represent the average scores of a sampling of students selected for testing according to factors such as age, sex, race, grade, or socioeconomic status

reliability – refers to the stability of the test

validity – refers to how well a test measures what it is designed to measure (most important characteristic of a test

types of test scores –

• raw/obtained – total number of correct items on a test
• percentiles – refer to scores in terms of the percentage of a group the student has scored above
• stanine – a standard nine-point scale that when used to report results the distribution of the scores on a test is divided into nine parts, so each stanine represents a single digit with the value of 1 to 9, where 5 is the midpoint, and represents the average, <5 decreasing performance, and >5 better performance

types of assessments –

• diagnostic test -formal assessment intended to provide detailed information about individual students’ strengths and weaknesses
• criterion-reference tests – formal assessment designed to measure individual student achievement according to a specific criterion for performance, e.g. eight words out of ten spelled correctly
• informal assessments – informal measures of reading that yield useful information about student performance without comparisons to the performance of a normative population
• informal reading inventory (IRI) – an individually administered informal test, usually consisting of of graded word lists, graded reading passages, and comprehension questions that assess how students orally and silently interact with print

independent reading level – the level at which the student reads fluently with excellent comprehension

instructional reading level – the level at which a student can make progress in reading with instructional guidance

frustrational reading level – the level at which the student is unable to pronounce many of the words or is unable to comprehend the material satisfactorily

miscue – a deviation or or difference between what a reader says and the word on the page

miscue analysis – can be applied to graded passages from an IRI or to the oral reading of a single passage that presents the student with an extended and intensive reading experience, which can be used by teachers to determine the extent to which the reader uses and coordinates graphic-sound, syntactic, and semantic information from the text.

running record – an assessment system for determining students’ development of oral reading fluency and word identification skills and strategies. Used by teachers to guide a students’ approach to learning when needed at frequent intervals, but not daily.

analyzing running record – calculate the words read correctly, analyze the student’s errors and identify patterns of errors. Also pay attention to self-corrections

words per minute – assessment that involves children reading aloud for one minute and from materials used in their reading lessons. As the student reads, the teacher follows along on a separate copy, crossing out incorrect words. The score is calculated by counting the numbers read correctly in the one minute.

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) – an assessment that includes a series of oral reading skill assessments. Short measures are used t monitor early literacy skills and provide feedback to inform instruction

portfolios – a compilation of an individual student’s work in reading and writing, devised to reveal literacy progress as well as strengths and weaknesses

anecdotal notes – brief, written observations of revealing behavior that a teacher considers significant to understanding a child’s literacy learning

checklist – a list of categories presented for specific diagnostic purposes

interview – a periodic communication with individual students to assess reading interests and attitudes, self-perceptions, and understanding of the language-learning process

Classroom Application

• Reading A-Z Running Records Info, books, and records – https://www.readinga-z.com/helpful-tools/about-running-records/
• Easy Steps to Take for Reading Portfolios Digital – https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/blog-posts/mary-blow/17-18/Digital-Portfolios/
• What to include in portfolios – https://www.thoughtco.com/student-portfolio-items-8156

Work Cited

Vacca, J. A., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C. A. (2012). Reading and Learning to Read(Eighth ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Key Words and Concepts

Chapter 3

ELL Developmental Language Levels – *See Image 3.1

response protocol – responding to ELL’s responses in a way that encourages them to elaborate, and continue to explore the English language. *See Image 3.2 for examples

contribution approach – teachers typically include culturally specific celebrations and holidays in the curriculum, such as Martin Luther King Day

additive approach – a thematic approach where teachers might integrate multicultural issues into existing curriculum

transformative approach – teacher attempts to help students understand diverse ethnic and cultural perspectives by providing them with opportunities to read about concepts and events, make judgments about them, think critically, and generate their own conclusions and opinions.

decision-making and social action approach – an extension of the transformative approach, providing students with opportunities to undertake activities and projects related to the cultural issues they have read about and analysed.

academic and cognitive diversity – the child learns at a pace or in a style different from that expected at school

exceptional children – refers to students who differ from the norm (above or below) to such an extent that individualized instruction is needed

Public Law 94-142 – passed in 1975, this law guaranteed a free appropriate public education to each child with a disability

IDEA 2004 – The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 is a United States law that mandates equity, accountability and excellence in education for children with disabilities. 

Instructional Principles for Academic and Cognitive Diversity – *See photo “Page 87”

inclusion – children with special needs are included in the regular classroom and receive assistance from the regular education teacher as well as the special education teacher

differentiated instruction – instruction is altered based on the individual needs of students (above or below expected level). Assessments help determine need.

Chapter 4

environmental print – the print in everyday life, such as street signs, product labels, and store signage

invented spelling – spelling children use early in their reading and writing development as they begin to associate letters to sounds

how writing develops – from a very young age children begin to explore the creation and meaning of symbols. Before they can write actual letters and words, they begin to scribble, and draw, experimenting with writing, until more and more opportunities for learning are presented

how reading develops – children are born into a written language filled world. Environmental print is all around them. Signs and words have meaning well before a child is technically considered a reader. With literary instruction, this prior exposure is the developed further until the child is a fluent reader.

phases of literacy development – *See Power Point PDF under Classroom Application for in-depth information*

• phase 1: awareness and exploration
• phase 2: experimental reading and writing
• phase 3: early reading and writing
• phase 4: transitional reading and writing
• phase 5: independent and productive reading and writing

literate environment – an environment that fosters and nurtures interests in and curiosity about written language and supports children’s efforts to become readers and writers

shared reading – strategy allowing all of the children in a classroom or small group to participate in the reading of a story, usually through the use of a big book with large print an illustrations

core language and literacy skills –

• oral language comprehension
• vocabulary
• phonological awareness
• alphabet knowledge
• developmental writing
• print knowledge

how to promote oral language development and comprehension – shared book reading, signing songs, finger-plays, storytelling, and dramatic plays are some methods of developing oral language development

vocabulary – words an individual knows and can use

phonological awareness – hearing the sounds of language apart from its meaning

alphabet knowledge – the ability to name and write the 26 letters in the alphabet

developmental writing – the first attempts at spelling words and composing texts

print knowledge – the ability to recognize print and understand that it works in specific ways

design of classroom environment – a classroom where literacy is grounded in all ways that children learn and grow; physically, socially, emotionally, and cognivtively, and should include…

• book area – orderly and inviting place for a student (or four) to read
• listening area – students use headphones to listen to books on CD, smart devices, tables or a computer
• computer area – relevant and current software available on computers for student use
• writing area – well stocked with paper and writing tools

language – experience stories – shared experiences or events are used to collaborate on a classroom story, where the students dictate and the teacher writes

Classroom Application

• Classroom reading nook ideas – https://www.weareteachers.com/reading-nooks/
• Listening Center ideas Pinterest – https://www.pinterest.com/differkinder/listening-center-ideas/
• Writing Center Ideas – https://www.weareteachers.com/writing-center-ideas/

23 Classroom Reading Nooks We Love (Seriously, So Cute)

Works Cited

Vacca, J. A., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C. A. (2012). Reading and Learning to Read(Eighth ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Key Words and Concepts

Chapter 1:

explicit – the teacher models skills, explains why they are important, and guides students in learning the new skill.

implicit – students learn through their exposure and experiences

systematic instructional approach – includes direct teaching, a logical instructional sequence, ample opportunities to practice specific skills, and move along a defined trajectory related to sequencing of skills.

autobiographical narrative – a personal reflection that helps you connect your personal history as a reader to your instructional beliefs and practices. Think back on memories, experiences, and feeling surrounding your history as a reader. Reflect on how you presently view reading instruction, and how you would like to teach reading in the future.

professional knowledge – knowledge acquired from an ongoing study of the practice of teaching.

literacy coach – expert that provides professional development opportunities and resources

alphabetic principle – suggests that there is a correspondence between letters (graphemes), which are the basic units of writing, and sounds (phonemes)

orthographic knowledge – knowledge of likely spelling patterns

schemata – reflect the prior knowledge, experiences, conceptual understandings, attitudes, values, skills, and procedures a reader brings to a reading situation

schema theory and reading comprehension – children use what they know already to give meaning to new events and experiences. The more prior knowledge a child has, the easier reading comprehension is.

metacognition – knowledge about ad regulation of some form of cognitive activity, or more simply, your awareness of your own mind and learning

Piaget – Child psychologist. Developed the theory of Constructivism. Theorized that children construct their own knowledge while interacting with their environment.

Vygotsky – Russian psychologist who viewed children as active participants in their own learning

graphophonemic system – print itself provides readers with a major source of information: The graphic symbols or marks on the page represent speech sounds

syntactic system – readers poses knowledge about how language works. Syntactic information is provided by the grammatical relationships within sentence patterns.

semantic system – stores the schemata that readers bring to a text in terms of background knowledge, experiences, conceptual understanding, attitudes, beliefs, and values.

4 steps of literacy development –

1. Text intent – children expect written language to be meaningful
2. Negotiability – because children expect print to make sense, they use whatever knowledge and resources they possess to negotiate meaning – to create a meaningful message
3. Risk-taking – children experiment with how written language works
4. Fine-tuning – an encounter with a written language becomes a resource for subsequent literacy events and situations

3 models of reading:

1. Bottom-Up – assume that the process of translating print to meaning begins with the print, initiated by decoding graphic symbols into sounds
2. Top-Down – assume that the process of translating print to meaning begins with the readers prior knowledge, initiated by making predictions about the meaning of some unit of print
3. Interactive – assume that the process of translating print to meaning involves making use of both prior knowledge and print, and is initiated by making predictions about meaning and/or decoding graphic symbols

RTI and the three tiers – Response to Intervention, derived from IDEA of 2001, uses a systematic approach to identify and instruct struggling readers

1. Tier 1: All students are provided research-based instruction differentaied to meet each student’s needs. Prevention/Proactive
2. Tier 2: More intensive work is provided to learners who have not been successful in traditional classroom learning situations. Focused small groups are used.
3. Tier 3: Learners receive intensive, individualized intervention, targeting specific deficits and problem areas. Special Educators and literary specialists take over.

Chapter 2:

scope and sequence – general plan in basal reading programs for the introduction of skills in sequential or vertical arrangement

basal reading approach – a standard curriculum which outlines a standard lesson framework with slight variations in different programs. The basal readers contain narrative and expository text

language-experience approach – teacher and students have a shared experience or activity, then use that as the basis for a literary activity, such as story dictation

integrated language approach – immerses students in reading, writing, talking, listening, and viewing activities, and is based on the premise that learning is a series of connections

technology-based instruction – using technology such as computers, tablets, and smart boards in literary instruction

instructional scaffolding – providing enough instructional guidance and support for students so that they will be successful in their use of reading strategies

explicit strategy instruction – instruction that makes clear the what, why, when and how of skill and strategy use

Classroom Application

• Letter writing is a fun way for students to develop their writing skills, and provides the teacher with valuable information about their progress.
• Look for teachable moments
• My RTI website: https://mradigted494.weebly.com
• file:///C:/Users/thera/Downloads/ThreeCueingSystems-detail%20(1).pdf
• https://www.readinga-z.com/helpful-tools/about-running-records/

Images from Book –

Video Notes

Videos this week included observing and practicing running records. I have no notes to add here, as I did several practice running records on printouts.

Work Cited

Vacca, J. A., Vacca, R. T., Gove, M. K., Burkey, L. C., Lenhart, L. A., & McKeon, C. A. (2012). Reading and Learning to Read(Eighth ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Key Vocabulary Words and Concepts

trade books – a book published by a commercial publisher and intended for general readership

text sets – teachers collect text sets of books and other reading materials on topics to use in teaching thematic units

mentor texts – teachers use stories, non-fiction books, and poems that students are familiar with to model the writers craft

learning logs – students use these to record and react to what they’re learning in all content areas. “Thinking on paper”. Used to help students self-regulate and reflect

double-entry journals – students divide their journal pages into two parts and write different types of information on each one, such as important facts in one column and their reactions in the other

quickwriting – students write on a topic for 5-10 minutes, letting letting thoughts flow from their minds and into their pens without focus on mechanics or revision. May include drawings.

essays – short, usually no more than two pages, of text used to explain, analyze, and persuade

collaborative books – students work together to create book, either by each writing their own pages, or by working together in small groups to write chapters

anticipation guides – teachers introduce a set of statements on the topic of the chapter, students agree or disagree with each statement, then they read to see if they were right

prereading plan – teachers present an idea discussed in the chapter then have students brainstorm words and ideas related to it

question-answer relationships – students turn the main headings into questions and prepare to read to find the answers to the questions or check the questions at the end of the chapter

semantic feature analysis – a chart created by students to classify important information. Often kept and referred to by students to write reports or create other projects

SQ4R study strategy – six-step technique used by seventh and eighth graders, in which students survey, question, read, recite, relate, and review as they study a content area reading assignment

how to plan a thematic unit –

1. determine the focus
2. collect a text set
3. coordinate textbook readings
4. locate digital and multimedia materials
5. plan instructional activities
6. identify minilesson topics
7. plan ways to differentiate instruction
8. brainstorm possible projects
9. plan for assessment

alternative assessments – teachers monitor English learners’ progress using a combination of observing them and asking questions. students can draw pictures and graphic organizers instead of essays. written tests can be given verbally. use small group work. keep portfolios.

Additional Notes and Classroom Application

• Creating Text Sets for the Classroom (guide) –
  https://guides.lib.campbell.edu/textsets
• Reading Rockets, Integrating Writing and Math –
  http://www.readingrockets.org/article/integrating-writing-and-mathematics
• Read Write Think on Double Entry Journals –
  http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/double-entry-journal-30660.html
• Reading Rockets, Anticipation Guides –
  http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/anticipation_guide

Work Cited

Tompkins, G. E. (2009). Literacy for the 21st Century, A Balanced Approach (Seventh ed.). (M. D. Fossel, Ed.) Pearson.

Key Vocabulary Words and Concepts

how to address struggling readers problems – See Figure 11-3 (in 2 parts)

how to address struggling writers problems – See Figure 11- 4 (in 2 parts)

differentiation – Based on Vygotsky’s theory of a zone of proximal development, instructional strategies are varied to match each student’s needs. To differentiate instruction is to provide multiple ways for students to gain knowledge based on their skill level.

differentiating the content – content can be varied based on skill levels. Difficulty can be increased or decreased based on the needs of the students. Their needs are assessed prior to being assigned appropriate activities.

differentiating the process – the “how” of instruction. Teachers group together students at different skill levels and provide materials based on those levels.

differentiating the product – projects varying in complexity to show the students understanding. The difficulty can be varied by changing the level of thinking required to complete the project.

high-quality classroom instruction – using a balanced approach that combines explicit instruction in decoding, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, writing, and daily opportunities to apply what they’ve learned.

grouping for instruction – students may be grouped three ways: as the whole class, in small groups, or individually. The grouping depend on the teacher’s purpose, complexity of the activity, and student’s learning needs.

guided reading – can be used with struggling readers or English language learners

tiered activities – multiple skill levels of activities that focus on the same essential knowledge, but vary in complexity

literacy centers – meaningful, purposeful literary activities that students can work at in small groups. See Figure 11-2

characteristics of a struggling reader and writer – See Figures 11-3 and 11-4

interventions – used to address low-achieving student’s reading and writing difficulties. During interventions teachers diagnose, provide intensive expert instruction, and scaffold individual students or small groups.

RTI – Response To Intervention, involves identifying students needs and provide effective interventions to increase the student’s success. This occurs in three tiers.

• Tier 1: Screening and Intervention. Students are monitored for progress with high quality instruction. If they are not progressing as expected, they move on to Tier 2.
• Tier 2: Early Intervention. Trained reading teachers provide enhanced individualized instruction. If the student’s problems resolve, they go back to Tier 1. If they do not resolve, the student moves to Tier 3.
• Tier 3: Intensive Intervention. Special education teachers take over the instruction

reading recovery – 30-minute daily one-on-one tutoring by specifically trained and supervised teachers for 12 to 13 weeks. The lessons involve rereading familiar books, independently reading the book introduced in the previous lesson, leaning decoding and comprehension strategies, writing sentences, and reading a new book with teacher support.

interventions for older students – struggling older readers should be provided with high-quality instruction, tailored to their needs, instructional-level reading materials, and more time to read.

Additional Notes and Classroom Application

• I really like the idea in the book about the Readers Club. As I will not have children at home anymore once I am teaching, I would like to do this. When I am hired, I will evaluate the need for such a group, and see if I would be allowed to start a club.
• The text suggests that round-robin reading is no longer recommended, yet I see it in the classroom I am in. I will need to look more into this.
• What is Differentiated Instruction (examples) –
  https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/examples-of-differentiated-instruction/

Work Cited

Tompkins, G. E. (2009). Literacy for the 21st Century, A Balanced Approach (Seventh ed.). (M. D. Fossel, Ed.) Pearson.

Key Vocabulary Words and Concepts

basal – textbooks used to teach reading and associated skills to schoolchildren. Commonly called “reading books” or “readers” they are usually published as anthologies that combine previously published short stories, excerpts of longer narratives, and original works.

components of a basal –

• Selections in grade-level textbooks
• Instruction about decoding and comprehension strategies and skills
• Workbook assignments
• Independent reading opportunities
• Management plan that includes flexible grouping and regular assessment

materials in basal reading programs – See Figure 10-1

literature focus units – See Image “Literature Focus Units”

steps in developing a literature focus unit –

• Select the literature
• Develop a unit plan
• Coordinate grouping patterns with activities
• Create a time schedule
• Assess students

key features of a literature circle –

• Choice – students choose things from what books they’ll read, where they’ll read, and where their group will meet.
• Literature – books should be interesting, level appropriate, and manageable
• Response – meet several times during a literary circle to discuss the book

types of talk during literature circle discussions – Talk about the book, talk about connections, talk about the reading process, and talk about group process and social issues. See Figure 10-4

roles students play in literature circles – Roles include discussion director, passage aster, word wizard, connector, summarizer, illustrator, and investigator. See Figure 10-5

reading and writing workshop – See Image Reading and Writing Workshop

think-alouds – the teacher verbalizes aloud while reading a selection orally. Their verbalizations include describing things they’re doing as they read to monitor their comprehension. The purpose of the think-aloud strategy is to model for students how skilled readers construct meaning from a text.

grand conversations – student led conversation about a story where students ask the questions, discuss their thoughts and feelings, and make meaning as they talk about the story.

series of activities in literature circles –

• Step 1: Select Books
• Step 2: Form Literature Circle
• Step 3: Read the book
• Step 4: Participate in a discussion
• Step 5: Teach minilessons
• Step 6: Share with the class
• Step 7: Assess learning

goldilock strategy – See Figure 10-8

responses in reading workshop – Immersion responses, involvement responses, and literary connections. See Figure 10-9

SSR – an independent reading time set aside during the school day for students in one class or the entire school to silently read self-selected books.

management of the workshops – establish the workshop environment from the first day of school. Provide time for students to read and write. teach them how to respond to books, and their classmates writing. Develop a schedule and post it in the classroom and talk it over with the class, including your expectations. Monitor, model, record, and reflect.

Additional Notes and Classroom Application

• Authors Chair – students take turns reading their stories to the class
• Beginning readers mumble their words while reading, while fluent readers read silently
• For reading times, the classroom I’m in has fun seating options that are assigned as part of each student’s weekly job, so that everyone gets a turn. There’s a small rocking chair, a gaming chair, a ball, giant cushion, and giant stuffed animals.
• What is Writing Workshop?
  https://www.weareteachers.com/what-is-writing-workshop/
• Author’s Chair Expectations: 6 Must-Do Steps for Sharing Success –
  https://curriculumchef.com/authors-chair-expectations/

Work Cited

Tompkins, G. E. (2009). Literacy for the 21st Century, A Balanced Approach (Seventh ed.). (M. D. Fossel, Ed.) Pearson.